Education

The National Comprehensive strategy in the education domain:

In the field of higher education, the National Comprehensive Strategy has got concerned with realizing the resolutions of Education Revolution with the objective of achieving the following:

• Revising higher education legislation and laws.
• Increasing the number of higher educational institutions.
• Qualifying of teaching staff
• Authentication of knowledge
• Arabcization of sciences at the higher education and scientific research institutions.
• Encouraging scientific research related to the solution of the country's development, economic and social problems and linking the higher education with the environment and society.

Implementation of the National Comprehensive Strategy:

The legislation and laws of higher education has been revised to assimilate philosophies and objectives of the higher education which aim at responding to the demands and needs of the society with its various environments and affirmation of the Sudanese identity.Expansion of the old universities and establishment of new ones in the states.

Old Universities:

The expansion of the old universities has included establishment of new faculties of medicine, engineering, textile technology, animal production, petroleum engineering, mining, electronic engineering, computer engineering, computer engineering, computer sciences in addition to the endemic diseases institute and sections for medicine, eye surgery and veterinary studies.

The New Universities:

At the start of the Education Revolution, a number of universities have been established including the universities of Kordofan, September 1, in Darfur, Nile Valley and Al-Sharq. These universities have been established in a short period of time and that their faculties have widely been distributed in the various parts of the country. The establishment of the Upper Nile, Bahrel-Ghazal, Sinnar, Al-Imam, Al-Mahdi, Al-Azhari and later Edamazin and Bakht Al-Ridha universities have come after.

Following the promotion of the province's colleges, another decision was issued promoting them to become universities of Dalanj, Neyala, Zalinji, Shendi, dongola, Port Sudan, Kassala and Gadarif, and that the number of universities have become 19 spreading all over the various states in addition to the Sudanization of Cairo Branch University in Khartoum and renaming it as Al-Nilein University and promotion of the former African Islamic Centre to the International University of Africa.

The Geographical Distribution of the Old Universities:

Old Universities:

• University of Khartoum (Khartoum State)
• Omdurman Islamic University (Khartoum State)
  
• University of Gezira (Gezira State)
  
• University of Juba (Bahrel-Jabel State)

New Universities:

• Sudan University of Science & Technology (Khartoum State)
  
• Al-Nilein University (Khartoum State)
  
• Holy Koran & Islamic Sciences University (Khartoum State)
  
• Aza'eem Al-Azhari University (Khartoum State)
• University of Kordofan (North Kordofan State)
• University of Al-Dalanj (South Kordofan State)
• University of Kassala (Kassala State)
• Red Sea University (Red Sea State)
• University of Gadarif (Gadarif State)
• Nile Valley University (Nahrel Neel State)
• University of Shendi (Nahrel Neel State)
• University of Dongola (Northern State)
• University of Fashir (North Darfur State)
• University of Neyala (South Darfur State)
• University of Zalinji (West Darfur State)
• University of Bahrel-Ghazal (North Bahrel-Ghazal State)
• University of Upper Nile (Upper Nile State)
• University of Sinnar (Sinnar State)
• Al-Imam Al-Mahdi University (White Nile State)
• University of Edamazin (Blue Nile State)
• Bakht Al-Rudha (White Nile State)

Educational Institutions (Universities):

According to the goals of the universities including a formation of the Sudanese nation identity and attempts to resolve the social, cultural and development issues, the following objectives have been achieved:

• Linking goals and curriculum of the universities with environment and natural resources.
• Teaching sciences in Arabic language and provision of sufficient amount of scientific references written in Arabic language and encourage writing, publication and printing to make them available.
• The universities contribute in the rural development and raising production sufficiency. Organizing regular training sessions to qualify workers.
• Participate in scientific research on development projects. Utilizing the students' capabilities in the illiteracy eradication campaigns.

The National Centre for Research:

The centre has commenced its task immediately following the accomplishment of its specialized institutes and conducted 36 research in various scientific specializations. These research have come out with essential results brought out in bulletins and scientific magazines in addition to symposia and conferences and covering the following domains:

• Energy: Exploitation of solar energy for lighting and storing vaccines in rural areas, wind energy for pumping water at Tokar, biogas in North Kordofan and production of charcoal from the cotton stalks at the Rahad Agricultural Scheme.
• Environment and Natural Resources: Technology of agriculture at the arid and desert areas, natural fertilization of legumes, and the adoption of biological pests control as alternative of chemicals.
• Tropical medicine: Bilharzias technology and the diagnostic technology of endemic diseases.
• Medical and aromatic plants: the use of local plants for the treatment of jaundice and microbes in general.

The History

PRE INDEPENDENCE ERA:

Prior to the Egyptian expedition to the Sudan in the modern era, the country was divided into different separated states .At the same period the colonial interests were focusing on the Sudan and started by discovery expeditions to prepare for the invasion of the Sudan, where James Bross discovered the Blue Nile source in Ethiopia in (1112 Higri –1770 AD). During this period there were three main kingdoms in the Sudan including the Islamic Fong kingdom, the Fur kingdom in Darfer and Tagaly kingdom in western Sudan. There were fighting, wars and conflicts between these three kingdoms.

On the other side, Egypt in the north was working to establish a modern state under the leadership of Mohamed Ali Basha whose wars revealed to him his needs for larger resources to complete the establishment of the modern state. So he thought of the expansion to the south to invade the Sudan and discover the gold mines and diamonds in addition to recruitment of Sudanese men in the Egyptian army and to discover the Nile sources and make it secure.

The Egyptian expedition started in 1235higri -1820AD though the Egyptian army faced no resistance except in some parts on the north and in Kurdufan, in areas under the authority of Darfur sultanate and in Sinnar.

Mohamed Ali Basha appointed a governor general for the Sudan who had all the civil and military power and made Khartoum the capital of the Sudan. The number of the Egyptian army in the Sudan was raised to 15000 after two decades from the Egyptian invasion, and many Egyptian missions were sent to discover the Nile source.

During the era of Khidawy Ismail ibn Ibraheem some of the remote parts of the Sudan were invaded and in 1278 higri -1870 AD Charles George Gordon was appointed as the governor general of the Sudan.

After the Mahdist revolution in 1299 higri – 1881 AD the revolutionists were able to conquer the Sudan after the assassination of Gordon ,then Britain discovered that its interests requires the return of the Egyptian Army to the Sudan .A brigade of 10000 soldiers was formed under the leadership of the British Kitchener . This army invaded the Sudan by orders from Lord Cromer the high commissioner in Cairo. The Egyptian army defeated the Mahdist in many Battles in Farka and in Kararry, and then Kitchener invaded Khartoum and raised both the British and Egyptian flags.

In the 19th of January 1899 the agreement of the condominium rule of the Sudan was signed by Cromer and the Egyptian foreign minister Botros Ghali stipulating the joint British and Egyptian Hegemony on the Sudan.

THE SUDANESE NATIONAL MOVEMENTS:

The Mahdist movement under the leadership of Mohamed Ahmed Almahadi had a significant role in mobilizing the national passion and feelings of the Sudanese people. There were also some tribal and national movements at that time, but they were very weak and the connection between the Sudanese people themselves was also weak which made these movements loose their strength and ability to have an effect. But the National People Movement was strengthening and affected by events in Egypt that took place after the first world war and the 1919 revolution .So for the first time in the Sudan the secret movements activities appeared, calling for revolution and demanding independence, this issue had spread among the Sudanese people. Anew cultured and educated class of people emerged while a large number of the Sudanese people were affected by the patriotic feeling and belief which dominated the concept of every one and which was initiated by the Egyptians working in the Sudan who were affected by the 1919 revolution. Meanwhile Britain worked to deepen the concept of the (Sudan for the Sudanese). In 1921 a secret association was formed named the Sudanese Union .Its members were the Students of Gordon college (now the University of Khartoum) which was under the administration of the colonialism, Meanwhile the white Brigade movement was formed and it was established by Ali Abdullatif, This movement played a vital role in the 1924 revolution while the national movement had called for unity with Egypt .On its side Britain called on its supporters from the tribal leaders to confront this movement .

Due to the violence practiced by the British expedition against the revolutionists and the terrorist methods of suppressing them, the Sudanese resort to the secret activities against colonialism and patriotism grew among the cultured class and was affected by different motives. Meanwhile the Egyptian army withdrew from Sudan for the second time in December 1924 AD after the assassination of sir le Stack, the governor general of the Sudan in Egypt, which sparkled a great unrest in the Sudan. In February 1938 AD the graduate’s congress was established comprising a great number of members from the cultured and educated people .It started its activities by providing social services then transferred to the political work and called on for the independence of the Sudan. Meanwhile, following the return of the Egyptian army to the Sudan, Britain worked for the issue of separating the Sudan from Egypt from one side and the separation of northern Sudan from its South from another side.

The 1936 agreement between Egypt and Britain had focused on the condominium agreement which was signed in 1899 AD and stipulated that the governance of Sudan should remain shared between the two countries though Egypt tried to cancel this agreement and realize unity between the Sudan and Egypt. Long negotiations took place and then Egypt presented the case to the security council in 1947 AD which abstained from taking any decision then the Egyptian government from its side in the 8th of October 1951 repealed the 1936 agreement. The Egyptian July 1952 revolution was preceded by an Egyptian / British negotiations on the Sudanese affair and when the revolution erupted in the 23rd of July 1952 the Sudanese affair was decided to be separated from the issue of the British withdrawal from the Sues Canal in any negotiations between the two countries.

When the elections of the legislative council took place it was almost a fight for the future determination between the two big fronts (the National Unity Party and the Independence Front) and the result came by the winning of the unionists, after that Ismail Alazhari had formed the first Sudanese government and its task was summarized in three points the first one the sudanization of the army and the civil service and the organization of the future determination procedures and the withdrawal of the condominium army.

During this period the Republican independence party was established and many of the Sudanese started to call on for independence, where conciliation between the Mahdist leader Abdul Rahman Almahadi and the Khatmia leader Ali Almerghani took place. During that time the British broadcast announced the resignation of the Governor General of the Sudan and said no new governor will be appointed to replace him and then the Parliamentarian Association of the National Unity Party announced the formation of a committee to replace the Governor General of the Sudan and to carry all his responsibilities so that the Sudanese could elect a head of their state.

The Turkish Egyptian rule of the Sudan since 1820 was faced by struggle from all the Sudanese tribes in northern Sudan and from all the Nilotic tribes such as the Dainka and the Shuluk in southern Sudan which sparkled the activities of the Sudanese National Movement in Many parts of the Sudan. Facing the Turkish rule in all parts of the Sudan , and facing the slave trade specially in southern Sudan was part of the struggle and the refusal of the government system so, Alnuba mountain revolution, the Gihadia in Kassala in 1865, Haroon Alrasheed in Darfur, Subahi in Kurdufan and Sulieman Alzubair in Bahar Alghzal were all revolutions expressing the peoples refusal to the Turkish rule and also an introduction to the comprehensive revolution which is later became the Mahdist revolution.

Although the Mahdist revolution started in 1885 in Northern Sudan and was backed by western Sudan but it found a great support from the Noair tribes and the shuluk and Anwak in southern Sudan in addition to the tribes of Bahr Alghazal, a thing which affirmed that the Mahdist revolution was a national revolution and not a regional one.

In 1889 the condominium rule was faced by a violent struggle in Karma, Kararry and Umdibaikrat battles, which ended the Mahdist era. There were also struggles in the east, Algazira and the west while the south had witnessed disciplinary wars by the condominium army against the Noair tribe during 1902-1929 and against the Dinka tribe in 1907 – 1923, the latouka and Taboasa in 1916-1922 .All these events were followed by the 1924 revolution which represented an alliance between the elites from the military men, civilian and graduates from all the different tribes of the Sudan in the north and the South which gave it the national identity.

In 1938 the Graduates Congress was held and had focused all its activities on many policies and came out with different orientations and visions about making the congress a vocational trade union for the graduates or making it a charity association or a forum for the national activities. On their side the countries of the condominium rule tried to limit their relations with the graduates congress which led to the emergence of the political parties in the mid forties where United Parties supported by Egypt emerged and there were also other independent parties supported by Britain .In 1944 emerged the Communist Party as a secret movement under the name of the Sudanese Movement for National liberalization. In 1953 emerged the Anti Colonialism Front and the Muslim brothers movements from which emanate the Islamic socialist party.

Following world war two all the Sudanese parties agreed to unite and called on the Graduates Congress to fulfill their demand represented in the issuance of a joint permission from the condominium countries stipulating that their task is to form a democratic Sudanese government in unity with Egypt and an alliance with Britain and this document was signed by all the parties by which they informed the Governor General of the Sudan. Accordingly a delegation comprising representatives from all parties traveled to Cairo in 1946 to participate in the Egyptian /British negotiations but Egypt rejected their participation as a third party .The negotiations were concluded by issuing a protocol stipulating the realization of the Sudanese people welfare and to practically prepare them for the self rule within the context of unity between Egypt and the Sudan. As a result there were different reactions from the Sudanese political parties between agreement and disagreement to this while some were conservatives to this resolution. In 1948 the legislative Assembly was formed by the support of Britain and the opposition of the united parties and the Khatmia. Egypt then cancelled the 1899 agreement and the 1936 convention and Royal decrees were issued , joining the Sudan to Egypt.

Alazhari and Mahjoub drawing down the condominium flag and raising up the flag of the Sudan In 1952 the Mahdist and Khatmia became close together and sent a joint delegation to the United Nations in Paris informing them by the issue of holding a referendum regarding the future determination of the Sudan .The July revolution erupted In Egypt and recognized the right of the future determination of the Sudan .In February 1953 the Egyptian –British agreement on the right of the future determination was signed and in accordance to this agreement , elections were held to formulate the parliament and the interim government which realized the Sudanizaion and the withdrawal of the Egyptian and British troops which weakened the united party call and changed the concept of the leadership of the unionists towards the independence .then the nation will for independence was united and became stronger after the agreement of the southern parties to declare the independence from within the parliament .

THE INDEPENDENCE ANNOUNCEMENT:

The historical event which took place in January 1956 by drawing down the two flags of the condominium rule and raising the Sudanese flag instead was the fruit of a long struggle, heroism and patriotism, led by the leaders of the Sudan from the different tribes and ethnic groups.

THE HISTORICAL SESSION AND ANNOUMCEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE:

The historical events of the independence started by holding session No.32 of the parliament in its third round on Tuesday the 16th of August 1955, where Ismail Alazhari the Prime Minister and the Minister of Interior and Defense presented a note to the Governor General of the Sudan asking him to inform the condominium governments by the will of the Sudanese to start implementing the future determination measures immediately, this in accordance to article 9 from the agreement signed between the Egyptian government and the United Kingdom government and Northern Ireland in the 12th of February 1953.

On Monday the 19the of December 1955 the parliament held its 43rd session of its third term where the member Abdulrahman Mohamed Ibrahim Daabaka from the Bagara tribe in western Nyala presented a suggestion on behalf of the Sudanese people and all the members of parliament announcing that the Sudan has become an independent state with its own complete sovereignty and asked the Governor General of the Sudan to call on the condominium states to recognise this declaration of independence immediately. This suggestion was approved by Mushawir Gomaa sahal from Dar Hamid tribe saying that this session is a an honor in the historical record of the Sudan and will be the line which ends the colonialism era from which Sudan suffered for 57 years and a new era for a total freedom and sovereignty of the Sudanese people.

Music

Sudan’s "whirling dervishes" are famed throughout the world for their spell-binding dances, in which they are accompanied by rhythmic drumming, as they gradually work themselves into a trance. Dervishes are Muslim devotees.

Popular music has had a rather chequered history in recent years, with many artists becoming exiles after the government stamped down on their freedom to perform. Lyrics are all-important in Sudanese music, with new words often made up on the spot for a special occasion such as a wedding. Traditional instruments include tom-toms, rababas (viol-like stringed instruments with a hide-covered body), and the oud (a lute).

MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY ART

The oldest and most consistent of Sudanese modern and contemporary art is the art of the tribes. The Sudanese tribal life has always been the least responsive to change. Art of the tribes of the Sudan shows great reservation and conservatism.

An art of such continuity clearly exposes the spirit of such tribal cultures. In fact the richness of the Sudanese art is in its diversity.

This entire heritage, past and present, constitutes the base on which the modern Sudanese artistic practices are deeply grafted. This is why Sudanese contemporary art, stands out among the different African schools of art as unique.

This entire heritage, past and present, constitutes the base on which the modern days of Islam in Sudan. It is traditional Qoranic School. Which continued to exist from as early as the 9th century AD until the present day? It teaches art as a practice, but not as an objective. Yet its artistic impact on the Sudanese child seems to be important.

When the Turks invaded Sudan in 1824, Mohamed Ali Pasha, who was very keen on the modernization of the Nile Valley, introduced the Modern Elementary Education, yet he based the experience on the traditional (khalwa) school.

In 1936, a department of art education was established in Bakht-el-Rida Institute of Education. The department was headed by Jean Pier Greenlow a British artist and art teacher he went into history as the founder of the modern art movement in Sudan. Since the pioneering efforts of Greenlow in 1936, Sudanese art has in fact developed into a relatively strong cultural medium of expression.

The change came when some of the pioneer graduates of Gordon Memorial College went overseas for further studies. But they soon came to discover that the works of art could only exist between the old and new, between convention and revolution within a certain society. This is why some pioneer artists where culturally frustrated in Europe. They naturally failed to be part of the European mainstream art. They started to drift away from it, and began to try things on their own.

So the Sudanese artists returned to Khartoum to face their own culture and to practice art as a socio-cultural activity. The Sudanese contemporary society is complex, plural and draws from many different traditions and visual styles. Hence what was called latter (Khartoum School) in the 60s, was in fact a forum for the struggle to capture the spirit and perspective of, not only Africa but the Islamic World also. Because both worlds make the cultural reality of Sudan, a reality of unity and diversity.

Contemporary Sudanese art world did not experience a war of styles, or strong schools other than (Khartoum School). Nevertheless, there is a relatively strong art movement, which is highly experimental. In its own way this movement is modernist and seeking to globalize in spite of the rather restrictive conditions under which hundreds of Sudanese artists are working.

If serious art can be defined as the art that does not have an obvious commercial orientation. Then we can say there is serious art today in Sudan. If you happen to be in Khartoum, then you must look around to see its art.

Arts and crafts

Many crafts are available in Sudan’s souks (markets). Strings of heavy beads often include antique trading beads made from colored glass. The traditional wraps in bright, printed cotton, worn by women, are mostly imported.

Many traders make their goods in the marketplace: old tin cans are cut and soldered into cooking pans and lamps; tailors make up the loose white gowns worn by men; and leather is punched and stitched into bags and saddles for donkeys and camels.

SPORTS

Sudanese were acquainted with sports since ancient times when they practiced I many types of sport such as horsemanship, swimming and wrestling...etc. during the colonial rule. Different sporting disciplines were organized by the formation of specialized clubs. Presently there is a wide range of sporting activities and facilities available throughout the country.

Needless to say, football is the most popular sport in Sudan and enjoys the unbound enthusiasm and support of fans and media. The major sporting clubs and teams in Khartoum are Hilal, Mareikh and Morada. Other states in Sudan have their own sporting clubs. Almost all types of sport activities in addition to football are encouraged and supported by sports clubs.

Football

Football is the most popular sport in Sudan. Even in remote villages in the desert, children gather together for a game. Sudan won the African Cup of Nations back in 1970, but has not been so successful in recent years.

Mosque

The majority of the Sudanese are Muslims; mosques were built throughout the country since the early days of Islam. Presently many of these mosques are found in Khartoum, some of them built for more than hundreds of years. Religious men and different Sunni and Sufi sects built the mosques. And in addition to their being places of worship, mosques play an important, social and educational role in the lives of the Sudanese.

Following is a list of some of the big and well-known mosques in Khartoum together with some brief information about some of them.

• El Imam AlRahman Mosque, Omdurman- Wad Nubawui.
• El Imam El Mahdi Mosque, Omdurman- El Mulazmeen.
• El Neelain Mosque:
  It is located on the Confluence of the Nile, and was inaugurated in 1983. Architecturally it was built along the Moroccan architecture. It is home to the head offices of the University of Koran and Islamic Sciences. Besides, four religious lectures that are presented weekly and twenty four classes for teaching Koran.
• El Sheikh AI Dareer Mosque, Omdurman- Wad Urru:
  Sheikh El Dareer built this mosque in 1916 to hold prayers as well as serving as a place for religious, theology and hadith lessons to be held. It was renovated twice, in 1946 and the second time in 1996 where it was completely restructured.
• El Sheikh AI Yaqout Mosque, Khartoum- Jebel Awlia.
• El Sheikh Daffalla Mosque:
  His daughter (Halima) built the mosque together with a tomb for Sheikh Daffalla in 1930. It holds Koranic classes as well as providing lodgings for the homeless especially the students who come from the various parts of Sudan. Also the annual celebrations in memory of Sheikh Daffalla are held at the mosque. It adheres to the Qadiriya Sect. Omdurman, El Abbassiya.
• El Sheikh Gariballa Mosque:
  The religious leader Sheikh Gariballa, built this mosque in 1929, It was renovated in 1944 and in 1996, under went complete rebuilding and enlargement. There are Koranic schools and classes. And it adheres to the Sammaniya Sect.
• El Sheikh Hamad El Nil Mosque, Um Badda:
  This tomb was constructed in 1936 and was renovated twice, during the mid-sixties and mid-eighties. It consists of three domes for the followers of Sheikh Hamad- el- Nil. They adhere to the Qadiiriya Sufi Order.
• Faroug Mosque, Khartoum, Gamhouria Ave:
  Was built by Ahmed Bin Ali Bin Aon Bin Amer, a famous Mahasi religious scholar who was born in 1009 Hegira in Tuti Island, and died in Sennar in 1102 H. He crossed the river from Tuti and cleared the site for the mosque and built it together with Koranic schools to which students from different parts flocked to learn. And consequently around this mosque started to grow Khartoum village. Khurshid Pasha enlarged the mosque in 1245 H, and King Faroug rebuilt it in its present day form in 1947 AD thus the name Faroug Mosque.
• Khartoum Grand Mosque, Khartoum, Central station:
  It was built during the Turkish rule. Its architecture is Turkish- Islamic and could accommodate up to 10.000 prayers. It hosts an institute for the training of Islamic scholars. And because of its location of this mosque in the center of Khartoum large numbers of followers attend it during prayers.
• Khartoum North Grand Mosque, Khartoum North, Central station
• Khartoum University Mosque, Khartoum, Gama'a Ave
• New Extension Mosque, Khartoum, New Extension-St. 41.
• Omdurman Grand Mosque:
  It is situated in the center of Omdurman Market (Souq) and is one of the oldest mosques of the town. It was built in 1910, the funds for the construction were provided from the contributions of the citizens of Omdurman. Firstly, it harbored a Koranic Institute that taught religion and Arabic. After the establishment of Omdurman Islamic Sciences Institute, the mosque was host to classes for teaching the Koran and recitation.
• Sayed Ali El Merghani Grand Mosque, Khartoum North, Shambat St.
• Shareef Yousif El Hindi Mosque, Khartoum, Burri
• Sheikh Daffalla El Saeim Mosque, Omdurman, Umm Badda.
• heikh Mohamed El Badawi Mosque, Omdurman, Abassiya:
  A descendant of Sheikh El Badawi built the mosque in the seventies according to his wishes, he is buried in a tomb at the mosque. Koranic classes are held regularly and during the school holidays to teach the students the Koran and its sciences. There is also an annex for sheltering the students who come from outside Khartoum.
• The Burhania Sect Mosque, Khartoum, Al Souq Al Shabbi:
  Christianity is the second religion in Sudan, with an ancient and rich history in this country. The Sudan Council of Churches is a voluntary, non-governmental organization composed of 15 national Sudanese churches. Its headquarters are in St 35, New Extension, Khartoum.

Churche

Anglican Church (of north Sudan)
Established in 1870. It is situated in Omdurman, east of Omdurman General Hospital.
Coptic Orthodox Church
Established in 1904. It is situated at the junction of El Mek Nimir St, with Nile Ave, west of the Sudanese Commercial Center. It has 21 churches throughout Sudan with two archdioceses, one in Khartoum and the other in Omdurman.
Episcopalian Church.
Established in 1870. It is situated on Gamhouriya Ave
Eritrean Orthodox Church.
Established in 1983 and is situated in El Taaif at Khaltoum. It is frequented by the Eritrean Orthodox and holds its prayers in the Tigrai and Arabic languages.
Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
Established in 1960. It is located on Africa Road.
Greek Orthodox Church
Is one of the oldest churches in Sudan. It is situated on Gamhouriya Ave
Roman Catholic Church.
Established in 1875. It is composed of 372 churches throughout Sudan with the largest, the Cathedral of St. Mathew on Nile Ave
St. Mary Roman Catholic Church
Established in 1800 at Omdurman, and later another church followed in Khartoum on Gamhouriya Ave.

CULTURAL CENTERS AND PUBLIC LIBRARIES

Abd El Karim Merghani Cultural Center

The center was opened on the 15th of May 1998. Its objectives are the dissemination of culture, knowledge and scientific information, by means of the holding of fairs, symposiums and lectures on the arts, folklore and culture in general. The center is equipped with a big, bilingual (Arabic - English) library with a child's section, and also an audio-visual library.
Work hours: Weekdays from 8:30 a.m. - 1:00 p.m., 6:O0p.m. - 8:00 p m.
Address: Omdurman, Wad Nubawi- Elu'mda- Intersection of Wadi Saydna St. with Al Doma St. P.O. box 168
Telephone: 552638 Fax:775435

Basheir El Rayah Public Library

The library offers literary and various cultural services, as well as book fares, exhibitions and cultural forums.
Daily working hours: 8:30 a.m. - 1 p.m., 5 p.m. - 8 p.m. Friday is a weekly holiday.
Location: Mowrada, near the Municipality Omdurman. P.O. Box 447.
Tel: 555273

Beit El Thaqafa

The 'Cultural House' was established in 1991. It houses a book and film club and a theatre, and hosts cultural forums and festivals.
Daily working hours: 8 a.m. - 2 p.m., 5 p.m. - 10 p.m. Friday is a weekly holiday
Location: Khartoum East, near the Army Headquarters.

British Cultural Center

The Center was established in 1948. It offers English language courses and houses a library, a conference auditorium and film shows.
Daily working hours: Saturday from 8 a.m. to 1 p.m. Monday and Thursday from 8 a.m. to 2 p.m. Sunday and Wednesday from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. Friday a weekly holiday.
Location: No. 40, Sharia Abu Sin, Khartoum. PO. Box 1253.
Tel: 780817 Fax: 774935

French Cultural Center

The Center offers French language study courses, a library, a video club, film shows, seminars, art exhibitions and various cultural activities.
Daily working hours: 9 a.m. - 1 p.m., 4 p.m. - 8 p.m. Friday is a weekly holiday
Location: Off Mek Nimir Ave.
Tel: 772837

German Cultural Association

EstablIshed In 1997. the AssocIatIon offers German language courses, a library, film shows and cultural forums. The Association is open throughout the week, except Fridays
Location: El Mek Nimir Avenue, Khartoum. PO. Box 1866.
Tel: 777833 Fax: 779377

Iranian Cultural Center

Established in 1989. It offers the foltowing activities:
Iranian language courses, computer courses, and Arabic penmanship courses. There are a general and an audio-visual library. It has another branch in Omdurman providing the same activities.
The center is open daily from 8:30 a.m. to 3:45 p.m.
Address: The headquarter Mek Nimir and Africa road junction, Khartoum
Tel: 472275 - 471224 Fax: 472274
Omdurman: Sharia Al'arda, Near El Merikh stadium, Omdurman

Libyan Arab Cultural Center

Established in December 1988. It offers the following facilities: a public and general library, a child library, and an audiovisual library. Also it gives courses in the following: typing, secretarial courses, Arabic penmanship, photographing, video filming, film editing, press and public relations, accounting, teaching of Arabic as a second language, and sewing. It holds other cultural activities and forums.
The center is open daily from 9 a.m. to 2 p.m. and from 4 p.m. to 8 p.m. It is closed on Fridays and public holidays.
Address: St. 15, New Extension, Khartoum.
Tetephone: 464726 Fax: 472044

The Iraqi Center

The Center was established in 1944 and offers the following facilities: libraries, a theatre, computers, video room and art exhibition gallery. A cultural forum is organized every Wednesday.
Daily working hours: 8 a.m. - 2 p.m., 5 p.m. - 8 p.m. Friday is a weekly holiday.
Location: Sharia El Azhari, Khartoum North.

The People

People and Society

There are more than 300 tribes in Sudan, including Danagla, Gaalien, and Shaigia in the north; Bija in the east; Kababish, Hamar, Nuba, Baggara, and Fur in the west; and Dinka, Newir, and Skeluk in the south. The people come from numerous different ethnic backgrounds, mainly Arab in the north, and African in the south. About 60 per cent of the population are Muslim, 25 per cent are Animist, and 15 per cent Christian.

Arabic is the official language, but there are more than 100 tribal languages, many of which are spoken by large numbers of people.

In the dry north and west, most people are pastoralists depending on livestock for their living, and often living a nomadic lifestyle. Further south, where there is sufficient rainfall, more people are settled farmers.

Each year, large numbers of men leave their families to work as labourers in cities, on commercial farms, or overseas, leaving many women at home, looking after their families and farms alone. Hundreds of thousands of people have had to leave their homes because of war or drought, and many are living in camps around Khartoum and other big towns.

Ethnic Groups

Sudan's advantageous geographic location has made It the recipient to the migrations of many people of different ethnic origins. This led some writers to call it (Mini- Africa).

According to the 1995 census, the population of Sudan is 26.6 million people. Annual population growth is 2.8% Anthropologists and social scientists had identified more than a hundred languages and dialects that are used by the Sudanese. This encompassed more than fifty ethnic groups and six hundred tribes.

In addition to common boundaries, Sudan is bound by complex racial and ethnic links to the countries of the region. Throughout the centuries, groups of people and whole tribes crossed freely into the territory of Sudan, where they intermingled and culturally blended with the native population. In this respect Islam played a pivotal role in consolidating tribal unions and kingdoms, eventually creating the so called Sudanese nation in the early sixteenth century

Today the main tribal divisions in Northern Sudan comprise:

• The Baraabra (Nubian) tribes of the northern Nile valley, still maintaining the derivatives of their original Kushite language.
• The Hadendawa, Bisharyiin and Bani Amer of the Red Sea Hills, speaking their own Hamitic and Semitic languages.
• A central mass of "Arab" tribes, occupying the entire central belt of Sudan, including the Kababish, Kawahla, Ja'aliyin, the various Baggara pastoral tribes, etc.
• Descendants of earlier peoples, such as the Nuba, Fur and Ingessana, predominantly still speaking their own language, together with Arabic.

The language that unites the whole of northern Sudan is Arabic, but even this has many considerable dialectic variations. Southern Sudan, i.e, the territory south of 10 degrees latitude, has always been isolated from external influences by climatic and geographical barriers. Negroid people, speaking a large number of different languages and dialects, some of which are limited to very small populations, inhabit it.
These are classified as follows:

• Sudanic, composed of the various tribal clusters west of the Nile, including the Azande and Moru-Madi.
• Nilotic tribes, which inhabit the river valley and swamps, such as Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk and Asholi.
• The Nilo-Hamitic tribes of the southern Nile valley such as Bari and Lotuka.

English, as well as rudimentary Arabic, serve as lingua franca. Many of the tribes have more or less close affinities with the tribes found in Abyssinia, Kenya, Uganda and Congo.

Southern Sudan, i.e. the territory south of 10 degrees latitude, has always been isolated from external influences by climatic and geographical barriers. Negroid
people, speaking a large number of different languages and dialects, some of which are limited to very small populations, inhabit it.
These are classified as follows:

• Sudanic, composed of the various tribal clusters west of the Nile, including the Azande and Moru-Madi.
• Nilotic tribes, which inhabit the river valley and swamps, such as Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk and Asholi.
• The Nilo-Hamitic tribes of the southern Nile valley, such as Bari and Lotuka.

English, as well as rudimentary Arabic, serve as lingua franca. Many of the tribes have more or less close affinities with the tribes found in Abyssinia, Kenia, Uganda and Congo.

Sudanese Food

A culture of a civilization is based upon its accumulating heritage. The dietary habits of people show an aspect of this civilization's culture. Sudanese cuisine is as diverse as its geography and cultures.

Central Sudan, is perhaps the region that is the most diversified and colorful in its cuisine and dietary habits. This is due to its being a melting pot for the different Sudanese cultures and peoples, and to its exposure to external influences, like the effect of the British domination during the Condominium period.

Societies always start with simple, unsophisticated types of food and gradually with their growth and development, they begin to improvise and discover more tasteful and sophisticated dishes, each depending on the types of new animal and agricultural discoveries. After having established their basic cuisine, they tend to the development of complementary foods e.g. appetizers, desert and other foods, which allows for the emergence of a distinct cuisine.

The external influences on people's dietary habits in Sudan could be mentioned here, for example, red pepper and other spices like garlic, pepper and others. They were brought to Sudan by the Syrian traders and Arab settlers from the Mediterranean who came to Sudan during the Turkish rule. They also introduced some dishes e.g. meatballs and pastries. Not only that, they also introduced some vegetables and fruits that were not known in Sudan.

It is of importance to note that the main staple of the Sudanese is a special type of bread called Kissra, which is made of durra or corn, Kissra is taken together with a stew and this has become the main dish in central and Sudan in general.

The main components of which these stews are made are dried meat, dried onions, spices and peanut butter. Other substances could be added like milk and yoghurt. These are used in preparing two well- known stews; Ni'aimiya and dried ocra is used in preparing other stews like Waika, Bussaara and Sabaroag. Miris is a stew that is made from sheep's fat, onions and dried okra. Other vegetables like potatoes, eggplants and others are used in preparing their stews meat, onions and spices.

These stews are accompanied with porridge (Asseeda), which is made with wheat flour or corn. Other times Kissra is used. As for the popular appetizers in Sudan, there is (Elmaraara) and (Umfitit) that are made of parts of sheep like the lungs, liver and stomach. To these are added onions, peanut butter and salt, it is eaten raw.Also other types of porridges are popular in Sudan which are made of wheat, Dhukhun and dates. They are taken together with milk, sugar and margarine. Soups are an important component of the Sudanese food, the most popular are Kawari', which is made of cattle's or sheep's hoofs in addition to vegetables and spices. Also there is Elmussalammiya, which is made with liver, flour, dates and spices.

In spite of the fact that in the present, Northern Sudan is known for its simple cuisine, yet it could be of significance that historical evidence has proven that ancient Nubians were the first to discover wheat and from them, the world got to know about it. This explains the fact that wheat flour has still remained the staple food for the people of the north who use it in making their main dish (Gourrassa). It is made of wheat and baked in a circular shape, its thickness and size change according the needs.

In the east, the most popular dish is the (Moukhbaza), which is made of banana paste. This part is greatly influenced by the Ethiopian taste and cuisine. In the west, each tribal group had adopted different forms of food that are basically very simple. Milk and diary products are a fundamental component to the majority of the people since most of them are cattle breeders. A distinct serial by which the west is well- known is (Dukhun). It is used in preparing a thick porridge called (Aseeda Dukhun), to that is added a stew called (Sharmout Abiyad) which is cooked with dry meat. Another form of stew is (Kawal), which is made from a mixture of some plants' roots that are left to leaven and dried afterwards.

As for the south, the abundance of rivers, lakes and swamps had made the people in these regions dependent on fish for their food. A popular dish is a stew named (Kajaik), which is cooked of dried fish. It is added to the porridge, which is common throughout Sudan, (Aseeda) made of sorghum. Sometimes natural margarine is added to the mixture. In Equatoria, (Aseeda) is made of (Bafra) ehich is a plant of the same family of potatoes. To the (Aseeda) is added a green vegetable called (Mouloukhiya) with peanut butter Fassikh is one of the most popular dishes in Central Sudan. It is made from a certain kind of fish which is leavened for sometime and after that cooked with onions, spices and tomato sauce. Fassikh is known in Egypt but they do not cook it there, instead they eat it raw. It is most probably of Nubian origin same as Eltarkeen, which could not be found any where except northern Sudan.

As for beverages, the Sudanese has several distinct beverages that are made of some fruits that grow in Sudan like; Tabaldi, Aradaib, Karkadai and Guddaim.
In Ramadan (The Muslims' fasting month), one of their favorite drinks is the Hilumur which is made from corn flour and spices. Also there are Aabrai Abiyad and Nashaa, which are made of corn flour also.

Food and drink

Sudanese people are very hospitable. Meals are eaten around a large, communal tray on which various meat, vegetable, salad, and sauce dishes are placed. These are eaten with the right hand, using flat bread or a stiff millet porridge known as asida or kisra.

The strong Sudanese coffee is served from a special tin ‘jug’ with a long spout, known as a jebena. The coffee is sweet and often spiced with ginger or cinnamon, and is drunk from tiny cups or glasses. Fruit teas and herbal teas such as kakaday (hibiscus tea) are also popular.

Most people seem to have a very sweet tooth, piling several teaspoons of sugar into their cups of tea, and enjoying sugary desserts. Peanuts, known as Ful-Sudani, are a popular snack, and can be made into delicious macaroons.

The Family Life

Sudanese extended families include uncles and cousins going back several generations. They determine a great deal about one's life, work and marriage opportunities. Traditionally the focus for Sudanese people has been the local village or nomadic community. These relatively small communities are made up of extended families based on lineage of male relatives and ancestors. The members of a lineage act in the group's interest, safeguarding territory or forming important ties with other families by marriage. Usually a family leader is a respected elder.

For people in the north who are herders, family status still depends on the size of the herd. In settled villages, certain families hold the rights to own land. In the past, colonial governments sometimes gave powerful positions to certain families. These family groups have gradually become part of the modern political system, but traditional ideas about power and status endure.

Most Sudanese families hold strong traditional values in a rapidly changing world. Whether in rural or urban society, the woman's world has been domestic and the man's world, public. From everyday meals to formal socializing, such as a wedding feast, men and women are segregated. Men and women lead far less separate lives in the south. It is difficult to say how years of war, famine and migration have changed families in Sudan. Some rural Sudanese have recently moved to cities, where family and ethnic groups mix at school and work. Upper-class families living in big cities like Khartoum and Omdurman tend to be closely connected to the government, business and the professions.

Environment and Tourism in Sudan

Sudan enjoys various tourist resources due to the availability of enormous natural capabilities. It is regarded as one of the richest African countries in wildlife, birds and Nile natural scenery which encourages tourism investment. The climate in Sudan is characterized by varied climatic conditions which are moderate all the year round in the Red Sea area especially in the highlands such as Erkwiet Summer Resort.

The special concern being attached to the promotion of tourism in Sudan is necessitated by many factors represented in the necessity of activating domestic internal tourism, notably among the youths to familiarize with their country. Tourism activity also makes youths realize the power of Almighty Allah, thus deepening their faith in Him. It as well inculcates them with love for their country and is further considered an important economic resource as it brings foreign currency to the country. Tourism also promotes acquaintance and friendly relations with other people who are attracted to our country by its vast tourist resources.

In this way, tourism plays two key roles. First it boosts Sudan's good image to the outside world, reflecting the good nature of its people, its civilization, its popular heritage and its arts. Secondly, it contributes to the boosting of popular diplomacy of the country.

Sudan witnessed many successive civilizations such as those of Meroe and Kouh. The antiquities of those civilizations are still seen in many areas of the Northern State, Shendi area, Al-Bejrawia, Al-Naqa', Al-Musawarat, Merawie, karima, Al-Berkal Mountain and others.

These tourist resources can generate a great revenue of foreign currency for the country if they are utilized and promoted in the best way in the international tourism markets.

Such being the case, the promotion of these resources gives Sudanese citizens the opportunity to spend their vacations inside the country, a matter which reduces the negative effects resulting from traveling abroad for tourist purposes.

Tourism activity started in Sudan since the dawn of independence with the country's meager resources being carefully and honestly directed to reflect Sudan's splendid tourist image to the outside world.

The state, represented in the General Administration of Wildlife, embarked on the establishment of many game parks and reserves so that wild animals are well protected, bearing in mind that they are a national wealth to be treasured and passed on to the coming generations (game reserves of Nemolie, Booma, Al-Zaraf in the Southern States).

Antiquities Sites and Natural Areas:

Sudan is considered one of the few countries which enjoy a variety of tourism resources.

These resources are represented in the Red Sea Coast which extends for more than 700 kilometers and is characterized by many tourist attractions, including diving and under-water photography, besides boat-rowing and water skiing.

The Red Sea Coast enjoys many gulfs and coral reefs as the area is free from contamination which plagues many seas and tourist areas in the world.

Sudan also enjoys an ancient heritage in the field of civilizations and antiquities representing a great attraction for tourists both from within and outside the country.
This heritage is centered in the Northern areas including Al-Nag'a Al-Musawarat, Karima, Al-Berkal, Merowie, Dongola and others. These areas and others saw ancient civilizations proved by the remains of the pyramids and temples, with a great part of them still lying unearthed. These areas attract many experts and researchers in this field. In addition, they are considered archaeological sites not experiencing any tourist leap before despite the availability of huge resources in them.

Central areas in Sudan including Sennar and Sinja contain antiquities of Al-Funj Kingdom (The Black Sultanate). The antiquities of this area bear testimony to the long and authentic history of the kingdom. There are many antiquities of the Mahdi State in east and west of Sudan and in the National Capital.

These antiquities which reflect the glory and history of the Sudanese people, beside the existence of many other antiquities in other areas deserve concern to attract tourists from abroad to get acquainted with the history of the country.

In East Sudan, at Sawakin area, on the Red Sea, there are great antiquities indicating the existence of a historically great period of Sudan's history. Sawakin island, for example, is considered one of the areas which witnessed urban development and unique styles of architecture. It is now regarded as one of the world's few areas in this field. There are many tourists interested in this aspect of history and who can be attracted to these sites.

The state also set up Al-Dinder National Tourist Park for wildlife in the central state in 1935. This park is considered one of the greatest game reserves in Africa. It occupies a unique position north of the equator on an area of 2,470 square miles.

In 1990, the Government announced the establishment of Sanganieb national marine reserve on an area of about 12 square kilometers as a first Sudanese sea reserve at the Red Sea area. The government also set up Arous Tourist Village at the Red Sea area and villages of Jemieza in the Equatorial State. Areas of games are represented in the Red Sea Hills and birds hunting at Kindy Lake in Darfur state after it had been protected against poaching.

There are also game areas in South Sudan, Al-Dari Mountain, Al-Fuweir area, Al-Rugia Al-Zargha area, Talha Al-Misairi and Foanghar Mountain in Kordofan State.

Entry procedures to Sudan

Citizens of all countries are welcome to visit Sudan. According to the prevailing laws and regulations, in order to enter or leave the country, a visitors must be in possession of a valid passport or at leas two months, and must, in addition, obtain and entry visa.

Entry visa

Entry visa to Sudan is issued at all Sudanese embassies and consulates abroad. Non -Sudanese nationals, except holders of the United Nations laissez-passer, or seamen on duty, should present a valid passport and three passport- size photos. And entry visa application form, stating the essential details of the passport, should be filled out and application dues paid. On certain occasions, the entry visa can be issued at the air port and border stations, provided that the visitor or his/her agent has send and application to the ministry of entry, department of passport and immigration.

Transit visa

This visa is valid for seven days for air travels and twenty- one days for land travels. Its not required for transit passengers, who must leave the country within 24 hours, during which their should stay at the air port.

Temporary residence in Sudan

This residence permit allows the holder to enter Sudan and remain for a stated period. Visitors intending to work or study must apply for a temporary residence permit for the required duration, subject to extension, if necessary.

The documents that are required for the issuance of a temporary residence permit for work are:

• Work permit
• A letter of recommendation from the employer or work place
• Two passport-size photos
• Fees

The documents that are required for the issuance of a temporary residence permit for study are:

• Acceptance from a university or an institute
• Two passport-size photo
• Fees

Exit Visa

An exit visa must be obtained by all Sudanese nationals as well as by foreigners who have resided in Sudan, for longer than three months. (Alien Regulations) Upon arrival Sudan, all foreign visitors must register their names at the Alien Department of the ministry of Interior, or at the pertinent departments in other states of Sudan, within a period not exceeding three days after their arrival. They are also required to notify the authorities also in case they move from one locally to another.

Registration Requirements

• Completion of registration form
• One passport-size photo
• Letter of sponsorship from a Sudanese citizen, company or hotel
• Fees

Upon completion of these formalities, a visitor is granted a one-month residency in Sudan, unless the visa authority states otherwise. On expiry, a visitors stay may be extended upon the completion of an application form, provision of a passport-size photo and payment o due fees. Domestic Travel: foreign visitors are allowed to travel freely between the different districts of Sudan, after receiving the domestic travel permits from the alien Department the validity of this permit is one month, subject to renewal.

Documents needed to issue a travel permit are:

• Valid visa
• Four passport-size photos
• Fees

Health Regulations

A foreign visitor to Sudan must provide on arrival and official health certificate for AIDS and Ebola and a valid international certificate of vaccination. This should include vaccination against yellow fever and cholera